Negative Consequences Of Pollution

Negative Consequences Of Pollution Externalities are known as the third party effects evolving from the production and consumption of goods and services in which the third party does not receive any appropriate consumption. Externalities are the root to market failure if the pricing system does not consider the social costs and benefits of production and consumption. The provision of the incorrect quantity of goods and services to customers by the market mechanism sources a deficit in social welfare in an effective working market society ought to disperse property rights. If no individual is the owner of a specific good then nobody has an economic incentive to safeguard that good from being harmed. This is directed towards the tragedy of commons where, for instance no particular person owns the ocean or the fish in the ocean therefore the deficiency of the population of living fish is annihilated by the fishing industry. Resulting from the absence of clearly defined property rights, markets are unable to completely ac count for them, assigning prices of goods and services. Studying a scenario that lacks government intrusion, as no one owns the air, polluting industries do not raise their prices to recompense for correcting their pollution because they fail to undo air pollution and this will ultimately result in health difficulties among third parties and these third parties ought to then pay for the rectification of their health. According to the World Health Organizations three million people are killed around the world and this is attributed to outdoor air pollution (annually) by motor vehicles and industrial emissions and 1.6 million indoors from the usage of solid fuels. There exists a range of studies that estimate that 7-20% of all cancers are caused by air pollution (only). Waterborne diseases are accountable for 80% of infirmity and deaths in developing nations, claiming a childs life in every eight seconds. Contaminated water is the sole cause of the deaths of 2.1 million humans who fal l victim to diseases that are linked to contaminated water sources. Contaminated land is a severe problem in developed nations as industries and power stations dispose of heavy metals in the soil. One shocking feature of agriculture is its potential to poison land with pesticides, nitrate-rich fertilizers and faeces from cattle and this is coupled with the fact that contamination that reaches rivers harm various life-forms. To the economist the problem that arises from externalities is not that the activity occurs, but that a surplus of it occurs. To locate the market outcome we begin by using supply and demand. The market price and quantity are represented by Pmkt and Qmkt in figure 1 below However, the market outcome is not the efficient result. The supply curve illustrates only the private costs of production, mainly the costs occurred by those firms producing the good. Costs are inflicted on innocent bystanders due to negative externalities therefore it does not symbolize all costs. Therefore we draw another curve the social cost or SC curve. This diagram signifies all costs of the product including private production costs and external costs. The efficient level of outcome occurs where the demand curve and SC curve intersect which is depicted by P* and Q*. Qmkt > Q* meaning that the market produces greater levels of amounts of this good than the efficient amount, this phenomenon is known as over production. Another notification of Pmkt < P* means that the market price is less than the efficient price. Reason being that the market outcome is so inefficient is due to the fact that the private market leads suppliers to produce some units of the good (between Q* and Qmk t) whose cost of production exceeds their value to consumers. It is believed that this is true because the units of the good between Q* and Qmkt, the demand curve (measuring value to consumers) is below the SC curve (measuring all costs). The overproduction of goods with negative externalities transpires because the price of the good that the buyer does not fully cover all of the costs of producing or consuming the good. If all costs were taken into consideration, then prices of these goods would be superior and people would utilize of them. If the costs of the negative externalities, the harm from pollution were put on the good as a tax, then people would become conscious of the full cost of producing and consuming that good and the efficient amount would be the smaller amount demanded. From the above graph we can come to the conclusion about all market allocations of commodities causing pollution externalities. ie.the output of the commodity is too large, too much pollution is pro duced, the prices of products responsible for pollution are too low, as long as the costs are external, no incentives to search for ways to yield less pollution per unit of output are introduced by the market and recycling and reuse of the polluting substances are discouraged since release into the environment is so inefficiently cheap. A property right is the restricted authority to resolve how a specific resource is used whether a resource is owned by government or individuals (Alchian, 2008). Property rights must clearly be defined, their use must be scrutinized and possession of rights enforced (Alchian, 2008). Transaction costs are the costs of defining, monitoring and enforcing these rights (Alchian, 2008). There are four different types of property rights mainly open access, common property and private property (Pearce, 1989). Open-access property does not have an owner, is non-excludable, that is no one can prohibit another individual from making use of it, and is non-rival, the use of the property by one individual will not restrict of prevent its use at the same time by another individual. Open- access property unsupervised and access to it is not restricted. The existence of open-access property arose from the fact that the ownership of the property has never been established, either because the state has legislated it, because no efficient controls are in place, or it is not considered feasible because the cost of exclusion overshadows the benefits. Open-access property can be converted by the state into private, common or state property through legislature, clearly defining rights and enforcing them. Examples of open-access resources which the state may convert include the atmosphere and ocean fisheries. State property, is owned by everyone however, access to the property and the use of it is controlled by the state, example a national park. Common property is controlled by a group of individuals, who are responsible for access to, use of and exclusion from the property. Private property grant strict control to the owner, who has control over the use, management and access of property, the owners may prevent another individual, if they want to, from using the property, and they can also restrict the simultaneous use of the property. The polluter-pays-principle and victim-pays- principle is dependant on the provision of property rights for environmental goods. The costs of pollution are to be borne out of those who instigated it stated by the polluter-pays-principle. Its goal is to determine how the costs of pollution prevention and control must be assigned: the polluter must pay. Its objective is the internalization of environmental externalities of economic activities so prices of goods and services completely depict the costs of production. Bugge (1996) acknowledged four types of ppp; economically, it promotes efficiency; legally it promotes justice; it promotes harmonization of international environmental policies; as well as it defines how to allocate costs within a state. The ownership of environmental goods rights are undefined and by default it is the polluters that are usually favoured. If no appropriate bylaws are put in place to ban polluting activities and property rights are indeterminate, polluters will implicitly have the upper hand. As these polluting activities are aggravated and societys welfare becomes more pretentious, the victims of these activities will band together to maintain their right to a protected environment. This will eventually lead to regulation being put into practice which will shift property rights towards victims until equilibrium ie. between optimal pollution and optimal pollution abatement is reached. This equilibrium is shown by the intersection between the marginal abatement cost and the marginal damage cost schedules, .Coase illustrates this result by using the example of a farmer cultivating his land and another who breeds cattle that needs that needs land to graze on. Both individuals have adjoining land which is not enclosed. There are two possible consequences depending on how property rights are allocated; case1, the law is in favour of the farmer breeding cattle. Nothing prevents the cattle from grazing on the other land. The latter will have an incentive to bargain with the farmer and try to get him to reduce the damage done to his crops by reducing the herd. Case 2; the law is in favour of the farmer with crops. The farmer with the cattle is responsible for the damage his herd causes to others crops and must pay for these damages. It is in his interest to negotiate to try and reduce his costs. The effectiveness of this bargaining process rests on assumptions regarding the economic definition of environmental property rights. Tietenberg (1992) states that the structure of the property rights is characterized as follows: universitality, all existing resources are allocated; exclusivity, all costs and benefits from the possession or use of resources are attributed to the holders of the r ights either directly or indirectly; transferability, all rights are transferable through voluntary exchange between agents; protection, property rights are protected from voluntary or expropriation. According to the coase theorem everyone has perfect information, consumers and producers are price-takers, there is a costless court system for establishing, producers maximize profits and consumers maximize utility, there are no income and wealth effects as well as no transaction costs. The initial allocation of property rights does not matter for efficiency but if any of the conditions do not hold then the initial assignments of property rights matter. When property rights are apportioned to polluters, the victims of pollution will be enthused to bargain. If the victims are in possession of the property rights then polluters will instigate negotiation. Optimal pollution and optimal abatement must be taken into consideration to determine the situation where rights are optimally allocated. Figure 2 The above diagram depicts the process. The vertical axis illustrates the level of costs involved and the horizontal axis depicts the level of reduction in pollution. MDC is the marginal external costs and the MDC illustrates the level of reduction in pollution. The equilibrium is determined at Z* where MRC intersects the MDC curve. The polluting firms will produce its maximum level of output when there is no reduction in pollution. In contrast the level of production will be the lowest when there is a complete reduction in pollution. This figure can be linked up back to the preceding cases in respect to the establishment of property rights. At Z0 the level of pollution is maximized hence there is no reduction in pollution. This implies that that both the polluter and the victims are given the rights. At the reduction in pollution is at its maximum hence the rights are given to victims. When the polluters activity influence the welfare of a sufferer an external cost is generated and the sufferer should be compensated. Ronald Coase (1960) pointed out that sufferers and polluters are incorporated in negotiating incentives of an efficient level of unfavorable impacts regarding of the assignment of rights when the transaction cost is negligible. The illustration above portrays the output level a firm will operate at (Qà Ã¢â€š ¬), where profits are maximized, however the social optimum is at Q*. When the sufferer has the property rights, the polluter does not have the right to pollute and the sufferer has the right not to be polluted. The sufferer chooses not to have any pollution at the starting point and at the origin the two parties begin to bargain. If they moved to d, the polluter would obtain Oabd in profit and the sufferer would lose Ocd. There is a chance that bargaining could occur as OABD is greater than OCD. The polluter will make a proposition of compensation to the sufferer since Oabd is greater than Ocd and less than Oabd. If this bargain happens, there is a movement to d which is known as a Pareto optimal allocation as one party is better off, (sufferer lost Ocd but gained more in compensation) and no party is worse off (polluter still has net profit). A move to the right of Q* is not plausible because pollut ers gains are less than the victims losses. Therefore the polluting firm wont compensate the sufferer to move beyond Q*. Now if the property rights are assigned to the polluter, start at Qà Ã¢â€š ¬ because its the point at which the polluter can take advantage of his right to use the environment to dispose of his waste products. It is again possible for the two parties to bargain and move from Qà Ã¢â€š ¬ back to f. Here the sufferer can compensate the polluter to give up a certain amount of economic activity or output level. The sufferer is willing to tolerate a loss fhi Qà Ã¢â€š ¬ if the move does not take place and will offer an amount less than this to get the polluter to cut back pollution. The polluter is prepared to accept an amount greater than fgQà Ã¢â€š ¬. i.e. the profits will be relinquished as long as there is a probability of bargaining between the polluter and sufferer the market will take us to the social optimum ie Q. The commons can be referred to as a society composed of the population. According to Hardin the idea that everyone born with equivalent rights to the commons in sharing resources, concurrently with overpopulation will destroy the commons, therefore tragedy of the commons. Overpopulation and pollution are the contributing factors that facilitate the commons not being sustainable. The South African population was 40.6 million in 1996 and is persistently growing at 2 percent per year. A continuation of this trend by the year 2035 will result in 82 million of the inhabitants relying on an equivalent level of natural resources which are already under strain in sufficiently meeting its demands, therefore escalating the production of pollution and waste. The burdens of overpopulation on natural resources uniting with cooperate greed leads to detrimental consequences. A case in point is one of the Toxic water rising below Johannesburg. Twenty miles North West of Johannesburg, the water from the spring runs blood red. It is toxic, highly acidic and bursting with heavy metals, so foul those animals in the Kruderdorp Game reserve downstream say no to drinking the water causing them to die of thirst therefore not one living organism is able to endure this venomous water. Millions of gallons of this toxic water lie beneath Johannesburg, a municipality with a population of nearly four million citizens. The water is rises at fifty feet a month. If this persists, in roughly two years time subterranean parking garages will be filled up with this deadly red water. Tunnels for electrical cables and underground railway stations will overflow. Unnatural crimson water pours out from the ground leading into the suburbs and eventually fleeing into the east of Johannesburg. Due to Johannesburgs gold rush, mining companies extort enormous holes under its city and s uburbs. When it rains much is soaked up in the earth and the water becomes toxic when combined with heavy metals underground. Terry McCarthy, a geology professor of the university Witwatersrand warn that existing mining operations in other parts of South Africa were on their part to destruction and it would eventually poison some of Johannesburgs main drinking water resources, causing future generations to be imposed with greater costs of the Vaal Dam and Vaal river. The tragedy of the commons relates to almost every commonly held property. Individuals and firms accept a hundred percent of the gains of easy disposal of waste into air or water but only sustain a fraction of these negative impacts of pollution. It is therefore necessary for government to control pollution, providing incentives to prevent pollution or inflicting penalties should pollution occur. Another example is that of national parks where the parks can be accessed by everyone without limits to visitation. As the number of visits multiply degradation of parks become more plausible. The finite number of parks combined with increasing visitation and population growth makes conservation efforts difficult. In order to avoid the tragedy of the commons population control is a need. Hardin proposes that laws, legislators, beuros and watchers who watch the beuros to legislate and enforce laws are the key elements of controlling the population in the commons. He also emphasize that conscience and sense of guilt are not enough to restrict the population. People can freely make choices between the options offered by the laws, but are compelled to choose the options that brings themselves under control. Reason being if they choose the unrestrained option they will have to pay more prices or run more risks of losing something valuable. For example people believe that if the accept compulsory taxes because they understand voluntary taxes would favor the conscienceless people who dont pay taxes at all. Hardin ends with establishing that education can put an end to the tragedy of the commons. There are numerous reasons as to why a coasian solution may not work; ie. transaction costs, state of competition, the free- rider problem, identifying polluters and victims and people unwilling to trade transaction cost include information and measurement costs, negotiation costs, contracting (legal costs) and monitoring and enforcing costs. The cost of setting up the contract between polluter and victim becomes excessive because of the countless polluters and sufferers. The many questions become controversial including who is suffering, whose polluting and by how much? How much will resolve the bribe or payment and will defer among individuals. A coasian solution works well when there is perfect competition, on the contrary it is feasible to get such a solution under imperfect competition but the analysis is much more complex. Due to environmental goods being classed as public goods, the free- rider problem poses a dilemma as the provision of public goods would not be sufficient if left to the private sector. Since convincing everyone to play a part in diminishing incentives to cheating on agreements remain intricate. Predicted by the game theory models, bargaining would make vulnerable. If there are clearly defined property rights and contracts are drawn up then those rights that are allocated to may be unwillingly to trade. Some government intervention is needed in environmental conflicts by inflicting either liability or property rules. Property rules stipulate the allocation of the entitlement. Example entitlements include the right to pollute the air or on the other hand, the right to fresh, clean air. When applying the property rules the court decides on which right is paramount and places an injunction against the infringement of that right. The Coase Theorem involves establishing property rights as a means to solve the creation of externalities. This essay has been based on the negative externalities of pollution, the formation of property rights, bargaining in addition to a critique of the tragedy of the commons. It has been found that although there are no government interventions in a free market economy, courts are still required to intervene in the establishment of the property rights. Furthermore it has included a discussion on the main consequences of over pollution and ways in which government could solve this problem. It went on to give reasoning as to why the coasian solutions may be falsified which was illustrated by examples throughout the essay.

Critically examine the architecture, routines, and culture (ARC) framework of organisational design as proposed by Saloner, Shepard and Podolny in Strategic Management Essay

The design of an organisation is highly crucial for a firm in today’s world in order for it to achieve and sustain its competitive advantage that will place the firm in a stronger position than its rivals. The firm can manipulate the components of organisation design, fit these elements with one another and with the strategy, to impact the firm’s performance. Hence, the goal for the organisation is to have a good fit between the firm’s design and its competitive advantage in order for the firm to be strategically aligned with the strategy. Any effective design will have to address 2 general problems: the coordination and incentive problems and must do so in a way that supports the organisation’s strategy. The firm can make use of the Architecture, Routines and Culture (ARC) framework to grapple these problems. This essay will firstly describe how the ARC framework can be implemented accordingly. An effective design will depend on the 3 elements working together and so, these interactions will be analysed. In addition, the implications of the framework will be examined too. To start, we need to define each component of the ARC framework. Firstly, the architecture refers to the dividing of the firm into subunits and establishing linkages among these groups. Secondly, routines are the formal and informal procedures while carrying out tasks developed from repetition. They embody established interfaces which pertains certain expectations about what will flow across them and a protocol for accomplishing the transfer. Lastly, culture is the commonly held values and beliefs of individuals within the organisation and once deeply embedded, is the evaluative criteria for behaviour and decision making in the firm. The 2 main challenges of organisation design are the coordination and incentive problems. As they are interrelated, their effects are intertwined and addressing one could impact the other. The coordination problem refers to the challenge of establishing an organisation design that achieves an efficient deployment of assets within the firm so that it can achieve its objectives as efficiently as possible. There are several crux of the coordination problem: balancing the gains from specialisation and the gains from integration; and how the decision making process is designed with the need for access to information flows. The incentive problem refers to eliciting the right amount and type of effort in the presence of hidden information and hidden action. It arises from the divergence of interests and objectives of the manager and the shareholders and is most commonly linked to the Principal-Agent problem. Having explained the key concepts, the coordination and incentive problems will be addressed with the ARC framework. In order to construct an organisation structure, the firm is broken down into subunits and such delineation impacts information and resource flows within the firm. To tackle this, one has to match an architecture structure which minimises coordination problem. An argument from the Strategic Management would be whether functional or divisional structures would be better to deal with it. A functional organisation is one which groups individuals according to the tasks they perform. The different functional groups (R&D, marketing, finance et.cetra) are clustered together to be overseen by a superior. Such a classification of groupings reaps the benefits of specialisation as information sharing and learning is facilitated. There is an efficient spread of knowledge and incubation of ideas among the specialists such as in the R&D sector where creative ideas can be built upon other’s ideas to attain innovation. Functional division allows better problem solving process as having similar specialists such as engineers in a group can lead to early detection of a manufacturing glitch and faster solving speed. In addition, there is a clear hierarchy with well-defined positions established within each function. The role of advancement is clear and hence employees are motivated to specialise and invest heavily in human capital to advance. On the other hand, divisional structure differs as the primary subunits are classified based on business divisions and under each of them are functional sub divisions. This allows for better facilitation of coordination across functions especially as the firm increases in scale and scope. If a retail firm divisions according to the different customer group it serves: Women and Children, both sub-divisions are served by functional groups. The design team could learn quickly about the change in taste of its customer group from the sales team of which will not be possible if the teams did not operate under the same subunit. This supports Alfred Chandler’s claim that divisional structure enhances accountability and communication. Hierarchy too, is an important factor to consider when structuring a firm to address coordination problem. Since the communication among managers together with the dissemination of information and shared resources to the groups coordinates the actions of the subunits, the level and nature of hierarchy affects the effectiveness of the communication process. Passing information through each level consumes resources, causes delays and degrades the information by introducing noise and distortion. This justifies the allocation of decision-making rights to those who have the most immediate access to the relevant information. However, decision makers may not know how their decisions will affect the other subunits. Away to address this is to create a formal linking mechanism that coordinates the decision across subunits or to centralise authority for only decisions which require more coordination. Horizontal linkages can also be established across units to achieve coordination. Its mechanisms facilitate information and resource flows without affecting the organisation of the subunits and this allows cooperation across units without sacrificing the gains from specialisation and decentralisation. There are several forms ranging from informal to formal procedures which include personal network, liaison, task forces and integrators. The selection among these options depends on the interdependence among subunits. More interdependent subunits will require a more tightly coupled design. Horizontal linkages benefits are 2 fold: they promote information flows and they get the firm away from rigidity. An apt example would be the strategy of the Japanese auto mobile firms located in the United Kingdom. The managers and workers share common facilities and by doing so, horizontal linkages are built in the firm on a less formal setting with a flatter structure. Managers dine with the workers and this provides the platform for the quick dissemination of information and decision making. Under the ARC analysis, routines also solves coordination problem as the established interfaces bring about large coordination gains. With each worker clear of his roles and the procedures, gains from specialisation is reaped. More importantly, huge informational efficiencies are gained as when tasks proceed from one unit to another, minimal amounts of information is needed to be communicated between units as each unit only needs to know the information to carry out its part. Decision making routine also facilitates the decision making process as it is applied every time a decision is made, thereby excluding biased and inefficiency from disagreements among decision makers. Lastly, a routine way for one division to access the resources in another division enables the firm to coordinate in ways that would be difficult if the firm has to make a new resource sharing decision each time. ulture too, induces cooperation. With a common set of beliefs, members of the firm will not approve of actions that violate the culture of the firm. The workers are naturally coordinated in actions and appropriate behaviour. With a well developed norm of reciprocity, resource and information sharing can be achieved between and across subunits and this enhances cooperation. Also, culture helps employees focus on tasks that are important for the competitive advantage of the firm. The ARC framework can be implemented to deal with the incentive problems as follows. Compensation and reward schemes can be designed to induce desirable behaviour. Financial incentives are a strong motivation for workers to act in profit-maximising behaviour. However, this can lead to the substantial variation compensation over time and it is difficult to ascertain the profit impact of the units’ activities. To reward more accurately, compensation can be tied to a combination of imperfect indicators of unit performance according to the 4 rules of thumb. However, these indicators are subjective and the cost of collecting and analysing the data could be too great. Architecture structure should also be considered to minimise the incentive problem by affecting the importance of cooperation across units. If decisions cut across 2 separate organisation units, the identities and performances of them are intertwined and this brings a self-interest reason to assist the other and cooperate. However, not fully owning the consequence of performance will dilute incentives for individual performance. Architecture has its limitations in dealing with the incentive problem and the other elements are important to better solve it. Routines improve the incentive problem, but also not to a great extent. They do create opportunities to get better indicators of performance of which can be incorporated with the architecture compensation scheme of combining incentives from other indicators of performance. Routines can also automate activities for which it is otherwise difficult to provide incentives for. Lastly, culture plays a stronger rule in addressing the incentive problem as it targets the foundation of the issue of aligning interests. With a strong culture, it is possible to have the firm and subunits share similar goals thereby evoking that particular behaviour from individuals without pecuniary rewards. Suppose a consultancy firm’s competitive advantage lies in providing effective solutions to their clients’ problem, it can spread this belief to its employees. If the employees attain considerable satisfaction from delivering results, they will behave in ways aligned with the company’s competitive advantage without the need of the firm to offer financial incentives for this behaviour. However, the difficulty in reinforcing culture has to be accounted for as it could meet resistance in a change in mindset among the employees. Yet once established, culture leads to an effective organisation design. Within the ARC framework, the elements of the organisation design interact with each other to solve the challenges posed. An example could be how the culture could influence the routines of the firm as the standardised interfaces could be derived from the culture. With the norm of reciprocity in the firm, resource sharing routine will be established in such a way that subunits are more willing to share resources in order to solve the effective deployment of resources from the coordination problem. Another perspective of the ARC interaction could be how culture affects architecture. If a firm has an open-minded culture, it could direct the style of structure to a flatter hierarchy with more interaction between subordinates and superiors. This encourages improved flow of information asset in the firm. Using the ARC framework suggests many implications for the organisation. Given the complexity and intricate relationships between the elements of the firm’s ARC and the organisation design problems, designing the organisation is not as straight forward a task for the managers. The managers will require a deep understanding and strong execution of the elements of the firm’s ARC or more problems could arise. A possible solution proposed by Saloner, Shepard and Podolny is to have a systematic approach to collecting information on the design challenge facing the firm and design elements. There are 2 parts to carrying it out of which the first is to ask and analyse problems that would be addressed if the organisation is restructured. The second part poses questions to gather a good description of the firm’s current ARC. The managers are to identify any inconsistencies among the elements that are making the organisation less effective as it could be. Although this approach allows more accurate identifying of the weak areas of the ARC, managers will still have to learn by doing and tweak their policies over time for the optimal design. A second implication would be the need for the framework to be dynamic so as to achieve organisation agility. As an organisation is designed to obtain a competitive advantage for the firm, it is pertinent that the nature of its competitive advantage is considered. The organisation design has to be flexible and change in tandem with the changing needs of the competitive advantage. Hence, there is no one best design to accommodate all considerations. Firstly, firms must continually develop and deepen its current competitive advantage to meet the challenges of competition (exploiting). Secondly, the firm may want to alter its strategy to pursue another form of competitive advantage (explorer). A retail firm in an economy recession will need to change its competitive advantage to producing lower priced goods to garner market shares and can do this by flexibly changing its incentives to reward the manufacturing department based on sales volume, thereby producing at lower cost. Firms can meet this challenge by possessing elements of both exploration and exploitation to profit. Lastly, does the ARC framework act solely to design an organisation to achieve the firm’s competitive advantage? It could work better if complemented with other processes such as innovation. Innovation could be connected with organisation design to ensure a more sustainable competitive advantage. A firm could incentivise its employees based on how good they are in coming up with cutting edge technologies to promote innovation in the firm. In conclusion, the ARC framework has given a reasonable approach to design an organisation. Most of the arguments, however, assume according to Alfred Chandler’s view that â€Å"structure follows strategy†. Does this relationship need to follow as such so that the company structure runs parallel to the strategy? I beg to differ as the strategy and structure relates reciprocally and hence, the ARC framework could be at times used at the deciding factor of the company’s strategic planning too.

Characterization of Dmitry Dmitrich Gurov Essay - 1251 Words

Chekhov is part of a non-typical category of artists, because he did not believed in his genius, on the contrary, there are evidence that he believed that his work will not conquer time and posterity. Spectacular, just like Russia at the border between the 19th and 20th century, Chekhov was born the son of serfs in 1860 (Tsar Alexander will abolish serfdom in 1861) only to become a landlord 32 years later, and a neighbor of Prince Shakovskoi. He bought the Melikhovo estate (unconsciously imitating Tolstoy, the patriarch of Iasnaia Polyana), not far from Moscow, with 13 thousand rubles of which he has paid an advance of five thousand. Chekhov is the true precursor of the theater of the absurd. Before the beckettian waiting there was the†¦show more content†¦Neither is prepared to leave his family or to live a double life. Both suffer, but what they cherish the most is love, so they hope that in time they will find a solution. However, life brings them something different, something that nobody imagined - the civil war and revolution breaks out. The whole country is devastated by the tragic chaos of the revolution and their love disappears in the distance. Summary Lady with the Pet Dog is a short story written in 1899, a time when Chekhov spent most of the time in his house in Yalta. He lived usually alone and often weakened by the effects of tuberculosis, tired of the city’s provincialism, but never losing his charm and humor. He felt difficult to write in Yalta; also, he stopped working as a doctor some few years ago. Yalta became a kind of exile of his. It seems that Olga Knipper, - his sweet actress†, and wonderful woman often complained to him in long letter that she is depressed, and he tried to cheer her with the perspective of reunion (Benedetti, 112). In the short story Lady with the Pet Dog, what initially seems to be a simple adultery, as so many others, turns into a great love story. He, Dmitri Dmitrievich Gurov, a man passed his early youth, with an unhappy marriage in which, for years, has saved himself by throwing his life into countless love affairs, lives in Moscow. She, Anna Sergeyevna, very young,

The Problem Of Police Enforcement - 1489 Words

Even though law enforcement administrators â€Å"are constantly striving to preserve a positive, ethical image of their departments to the public they are sworn to serve and protect†(pg. 5), in the law enforcement world today, there are many problems that are occurring within the duties of police officers. These problems vary across a broad board. They may include personal issues that officers may be dealing with on a daily basis at home or issues that arise throughout police departments across the country. From the many problems that we discussed and wrote on the white board in class, I have chose six that I see as the major problems in the law enforcement world. These six problems can be fixed and dealt with if the appropriate actions are†¦show more content†¦However, just because there are some â€Å"bad apples† that does not mean the rest of the apples are all spoiled as well. Most law enforcement agents often get a bad name and reputation due to those few â€Å"bad apples†. Tossing out those â€Å"bad apples† would help the law enforcement world because there would not be worries or issues for those who are the honest, hardworking â€Å"good apples†. Abuse of Power (such as Police Authority) The abuse of power has a correlation to the â€Å"bad apples† due to the fact that they are the ones who usually abuse the power of the law. When the abuse of power occurs it makes it hard for the value of such to be appreciated. Those in this type of career field that abuse such power may think just because they â€Å"are the law† they do not have to abide by it like a normal citizen. It is neither appropriate nor ethical. When this abuse is done it gives off the wrong impression to the public about how all agents do their jobs. An example of abuse of power would be how a law enforcement agent wears his/her uniform or drives his/her police unit in public places when he/she is off duty to receive different types of special treatment like receiving discounts and free meals or participating in activities such as parking wherever he/she feels. It makes a law enforcement agent look like he/she is inconsiderate and thinks because he/she has a career in that type of field tha t he/she is superior to others and

The Merchant Of Venice . In The Merchant Of Venice, Written

The Merchant of Venice In The Merchant of Venice, written by William Shakespeare is a play that only has three female characters. They are Portia, Nerissa, and Jessica. Portia is a woman who was in search of a husband, who her father had to agree with. Unfortunately, Portia s father had passed, so he left a test for Portia s suitors to pass in order for one of them to marry his daughter. These women are not bad women, they are rebellious and brave but they are not bad people. I also found some similarities of the three females with our modern times. Portia is a rich heiress, who in most of the play, is very unhappy and depressed. At the beginning of the play, she is not in a very happy place. She had to welcome men into her†¦show more content†¦I ll hold thee any wager, when we are both accoutred like young men, I ll prove the prettier fellow of the two, and wear my dagger with the braver grace, and speak between the change of a man and a boy with a reed voice, and turn two mincing steps in to a manly stride, and speak of frays like fine bragging youth; and tell quaint lies how honourable ladies sought my love, which I denying, they fell sick and died; I could not do withal;†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.† (Act III, iv, 62-74). In this quote, Portia is exclaiming to Nerissa that they will dress up as men. It’s a good example because it shows how Portia gets rebellious and how she does whatever she wants. Nerissa is one of Portia s friends, she would help Portia decide on all the suitors that were arriving at the castle. She was also her waiting-maid. Nerissa was Portia s best friend. In the enlightenment century mistress and servants didn t have a relationship like Portia and Nerissa did. During the enlightenment, servants would be treated differently. For instance, their job was to make their mistress s bed, to go get them coffee, and several other things. They were not allowed to be their mistress s friend. It was mostly for them to have a very distinct relationship. But instead, Nerissa and Portia had a special bond together. Since Nerissa and Portia were really good friends they would do things together. For instance, she and Portia were going to dress as men so they could go and help theirShow MoreRelatedA Study of Anti-Semitism in The Merchant of Venice Essay1540 Words   |  7 PagesA Study of Anti-Semitism in The Merchant of Venice ‘The Merchant of Venice’ was written by Shakespeare in 1596 and appeals to both audiences of comedy and tragedy. The play features anti-Semitism which is a response to 1500’s Britain as well as other literature of the time. 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Succubus Shadows Chapter 11 Free Essays

I was in Seattle. Modern-day Seattle, thankfully. I wanted to be nowhere near the fourth century, even though I dreaded what awful vision the Oneroi would show me now. We will write a custom essay sample on Succubus Shadows Chapter 11 or any similar topic only for you Order Now Not only was I in Seattle, I was with Roman. He had just parked on Cherry Street and was striding toward the heart of Pioneer Square, which was buzzing today with tourists and others enjoying the clear autumn night. This time, I wasn’t in the dream. I was an observer only, following along with him like a ghost or maybe a documentary camera. I wanted to talk to him, to communicate in some way, but I had no mouth with which to speak. I had no form whatsoever, only my consciousness watching this vision. His pace was brisk, and he pushed through the meandering crowd with no concern for the dirty looks and occasional comment. He was focused on his destination, one I recognized immediately: the Cellar. Our favorite immortal hangout was crowded with mortals tonight. Yet, for whatever reason, no matter how busy the bar was, Jerome always managed to get the same corner table in the back. He sat there now with Carter but didn’t wear the usual unconcerned look we often found him with while drinking. The demon’s face was filled with agitation, and he and Carter were arguing about something. Roman’s signature was masked, so neither angel nor demon noticed his approach. Jerome shot him a glare, no doubt thinking some human was bothering them. Jerome’s expression promptly changed when he saw who it was, and he opened his mouth to say something. He didn’t get the chance because Roman spoke first. â€Å"Where is she?† demanded Roman. He sat in a chair and jerked it toward Jerome so that father and son could look eye to eye. â€Å"Where the fuck is Georgina?† The music and conversation covered most of his shouting, but a few nearby patrons gave him startled looks. Roman was oblivious. His attention was all on Jerome. Anger crackled around the nephilim like an aura itself. Jerome had been clearly distressed about something when Roman had entered, but now, in the presence of an underling, the demon put on the cold, haughty expression that was so typical for him. â€Å"Funny,† said Jerome. â€Å"I was going to ask you the same thing.† Roman glowered. â€Å"How the hell would I know? She vanished right before my eyes! You’re the one that’s supposed to have some sort of divine connection to her.† Jerome’s face didn’t twitch, but his words were like a gut punch to both me and Roman. â€Å"I can’t feel her anymore. She’s disappeared for me too.† I might have had no physical form, but cold fear ran through me nonetheless. An archdemon was connected to his subordinates. He always knew where they were and could tell if they were in pain. When Jerome had been summoned, that connection had shattered, cutting us off from our hellish â€Å"gifts.† Now, the opposite had happened. I had been summoned, so to speak, and torn from Jerome. The Oneroi’s words came back to me: He won’t find you. He can’t find you. You no longer exist for him. â€Å"That’s impossible,† growled Roman. â€Å"Unless†¦Ã¢â‚¬  A troubled look came over him. â€Å"Someone’s hiding her signature?† It would be terribly ironic if the scheme he’d once planned came to be through someone else. Jerome shook his head and gestured to a waiter for another round. â€Å"I wouldn’t be able to find her if that happened, but the connection would be there. I’d know she still existed.† You no longer exist for him. â€Å"Is she†¦is she dead?† Some of Roman’s initial fury had dimmed a little. It wasn’t an unreasonable question, really. I kind of felt dead. â€Å"No. Her soul would have shown up in Hell.† Jerome took a sip of his new drink and narrowed his eyes at Roman. â€Å"But it’s not your job to ask questions. What do you know? You said she disappeared. Literally?† Roman’s face was downright bleak now. He glanced between Jerome and a grim, thus far silent, Carter. â€Å"Yes. Literally. She’s been having these†¦I don’t know how to explain it. She couldn’t even explain it.† â€Å"I was there,† Jerome reminded him. â€Å"She told me. The music. The colors.† The sneer in his voice made it clear that he regarded those types of things as nuisances. â€Å"It was like this weird force pulling her, enchanting her. It wanted her to come to it.† Roman was repeating known info, possibly to make Jerome take it more seriously. â€Å"She called it a siren song and kept sleepwalking, trying to get to it. And then†¦and then tonight, she went to it.† â€Å"Did you see it?† asked Carter. It was odd to see him so serious and†¦well, confused. The former emotion I’d seen only a handful of times. The latter I’d never seen on him. â€Å"I saw her disappear. Like, vanish into thin air. But I didn’t see it exactly. I felt it. I could sense whenever it was around.† â€Å"What did it feel like?† asked Jerome. Roman shrugged. â€Å"I don’t know. Just†¦a force. A power. Not an entity exactly. And not something I could identify. Not a greater immortal or anything.† â€Å"That,† declared Jerome, â€Å"is absolutely useless information.† Roman’s anger returned. â€Å"It’s all I’ve got! If you’d listened to her more, this wouldn’t have happened. You let this happen. You didn’t take it seriously, and now she’s gone!† Yelling at Jerome. Not a good thing. â€Å"Be careful, lest I revoke your invitation,† hissed the demon, eyes boring into his son. â€Å"And I did listen. I set you to protect her. You, apparently, are the one who ‘let’ this happen.† Roman flushed. â€Å"I was in the other room when that thing showed up again. I hurried in as fast as I could, but it was too late. Georgina’d already given herself up, and honestly†¦I’m not sure I could have stopped it anyway.† It was a big concession for Roman. Nephilim could inherit anywhere from none to all of their immortal parent’s power. Roman was very close to having as much strength as Jerome but still lagged behind just a little. Additionally, the types of power wielded by greater and lesser immortals differed. As a type of hybrid, Roman might not have been able to fight what Jerome could have. Jerome didn’t push that point further. â€Å"So, we still know nothing.† â€Å"We know that whatever did this isn’t one of ours,† said Carter quietly, speaking at last. â€Å"Yes,† snapped Jerome. â€Å"Which only leaves a billion other things it could be. Unless†¦Ã¢â‚¬  He glanced over at one of the chairs at their table. One moment it was empty. The next, Simone sat there. Carter didn’t seem surprised, but Roman and I certainly were. And she was especially surprised, as shown by her squeal of fear and befuddled expression. Being teleported by a greater immortal was not a pleasant experience. She was blond today, dressed in a plain blouse and pair of jeans. It was a sign of her agitation that she didn’t widen her neckline when she saw Carter. â€Å"What – what’s going on?† she stammered. â€Å"What’d you do to Georgina?† asked Jerome. Her eyes went wide. He might still wear the guise of John Cusack, but as he stared her down, it was easy to see that he truly was a demon of Hell. â€Å"Nothing!† cried Simone. She cowered back into her chair. â€Å"I don’t know what you’re talking about!† Jerome was up and out of his chair so fast, he might have teleported himself. He jerked Simone up as well and shoved her against a nearby wall, hand on her throat. I’d been in a similar position with him before and felt pity for the other succubus. No one else in the bar noticed, so Jerome was either glamoring them or making him and Simone invisible. â€Å"Do not lie to me!† he exclaimed. â€Å"What have you done? Who did you get to do this?† I could see his line of reasoning now. What Roman had sensed might not be demon or angel, but it wasn’t impossible that someone from our side could have worked with an unknown entity. It wouldn’t be the first time. Roman had caught on as well and leapt up to stand beside his father. â€Å"I swear, if you’ve hurt her even a little, I will rip you apart!† Simone’s fear was put on pause as she gave Roman a puzzled look. With his signature hidden, he only came across as a human to her. As far as she was probably concerned, he had no involvement in any of this – and no ability to back up his threat. Little did she know. She turned back to Jerome, cringing when she saw his face once more. â€Å"Nothing,† she said, her voice hard to understand with Jerome choking off her air. â€Å"I didn’t do anything to her, I swear it!† â€Å"You were trying to get Seth into bed,† said Roman. â€Å"That’s all! I didn’t do anything to her. Anything.† Simone’s face turned pleading as she spoke to Jerome. â€Å"You have to know why I’m here. It’s not to harm her.† Jerome’s face was still filled with terrible fury, but there was also a flicker of consideration in his eyes. He said nothing, and it was Carter’s voice that filled the tense silence. â€Å"She’s telling the truth,† he said. Jerome didn’t break his hold on Simone, but that calculating look was still in his gaze. â€Å"Do you know anything about her disappearing? Anything at all?† â€Å"No! No!† Jerome glanced back at Carter, who gave a swift nod. With a disappointed sigh, Jerome released her and stepped back. Roman looked doubtful, but he too had to know that if Carter vouched for her, it was gospel, so to speak. Jerome returned to his chair, downing his drink in one gulp. Roman joined him a moment later, but Simone remained standing, watching the whole group uncertainly as she rubbed her bruised throat. â€Å"I don’t know what’s going on, but if there’s anything – â€Å" â€Å"I’m done with you,† said Jerome harshly. He waved his hand in a type of dismissal, and Simone vanished as quickly as she’d arrived. â€Å"That was mean,† noted Carter, idly stirring his bourbon. â€Å"I sent her back to her hotel,† said Jerome. â€Å"Not to a desert island.† Roman’s anger had cooled a little, and he wore a calm, considering expression that looked remarkably like his father’s. â€Å"What did she mean when she said you knew why she was here? Why was I following her?† â€Å"I can’t report this,† said Jerome. He was speaking to Carter, like Roman wasn’t even there. â€Å"Not yet†¦not unless I have to. We can’t let any higher authorities know.† â€Å"And I can’t do anything at all,† mused Carter. â€Å"This is technically your problem.† He took a long drink, as though that would fix everything. â€Å"But you will,† said Roman boldly. â€Å"You’ll try to find her?† â€Å"Of course,† said Carter. One of his trademark cynical smiles lit his lips, replacing the grim expression from earlier. I suspected it was a cover-up for how he truly felt. â€Å"This place would be too boring without her.† For a heartbeat, I kind of liked this invisible watcher thing. Carter had no sense that I was there, and for the first time, I was able to truly study him without him looking back. He might have that annoying levity on now, but he’d already shown concern for my well-being. And I really couldn’t believe it was simply because he found me entertaining. What was his game? Those gray eyes revealed nothing. â€Å"Yes,† said Jerome dryly. â€Å"Who knows how we’ll get by without her maudlin misadventures.† Carter started to protest, but again, Roman came forward with an interruption. â€Å"Oh. That’s the other thing, what we talked to Erik about.† He gave them a brief recap of Erik’s observations and how I was only visited when I was depressed. Roman also described each of the incidents in as much detail as possible. Jerome and Carter exchanged looks. â€Å"With as down as she usually is, that’s not much to go on,† noted the demon. â€Å"But it might be worth a visit to the old man.† â€Å"Jerome,† said Carter in a warning voice. The two locked eyes again and had some sort of silent communication. When Jerome finally looked away, it was to casually pick up his latest drink. â€Å"Don’t worry. I won’t scare him. Much.† I wondered if he’d go to Erik right then, but I didn’t get a chance to find out. The world dissolved once more, and I found myself back in my prison. Aside from being terribly uncomfortable, I also felt exhausted. Studying the smiling, shining Oneroi, I could guess what had happened. In feeding off my dream, they’d taken some of my energy with it. â€Å"Dream†¦Ã¢â‚¬  I murmured, suddenly confused. I’d braced myself for some terrible outcome, but it hadn’t happened. â€Å"That wasn’t a dream. That was real. You showed me what was really happening. What my friends are doing.† â€Å"Some dreams are true, and some are lies,† said Two. I really wanted to slap him. â€Å"That one was true.† A story came back to me, the faintest memory from my childhood. Christian priests had long had a foothold in Cyprus when I was born, but old stories and rites had lingered. What were considered myths today had been held as fact back then. One such story said that dreams were sent to humans from one of two gates: one of ivory and one of horn. Those from the ivory gate were false; those from the horn gate were true. I didn’t know if that was just a metaphor, but the outcome apparently had some validity to it. â€Å"But why?† I asked. â€Å"Why show me true dreams? You’d torture me a lot more with another stupid nightmare.† That nightmare hadn’t been stupid. It had been agonizing, but I didn’t want them to know that. What was stupid was me suggesting how they should torment me. â€Å"Because you don’t know,† said One. â€Å"Soon you won’t know truth from lies. You assume everything that causes pain must be a lie. But you won’t know. Soon you won’t trust anything at all.† â€Å"I’ll know,† I said adamantly. â€Å"I can tell the difference.† â€Å"You believe what you just saw was true?† asked Two. â€Å"Yes. Absolutely.† â€Å"Good,† said One. â€Å"Then you’ve also learned another truth: it’s impossible for anyone to find you. You’ll stay here forever.† How to cite Succubus Shadows Chapter 11, Essay examples

Organizational Structure Design in Australia

Question: Discuss about the Organizational Structure Design in Australia. Answer: Introduction In this assignment, different types of organizational structure design used in Australia have been discussed. The importance of maintaining appropriate organizational structure in a business has also been analyzed in this research work. As Pinheiro and Stensaker (2014) stated that organizational structure of most of the small companies in Australia have to major areas of working. They are such as functional area and product area. According to Kelly et al. (2014), functional area of an organizational structure includes areas like engineering report, marketing or CEO in a functional organizational structure. As Stonier (2012) stated that, product structures are used by organizations when they produce numerous types of products or brands. As Rasula et al. (2012) stated that, all the formal organizations are usually delineated by an organizational chart and job descriptions. Every company in Australia has developed official reporting relationship for their managers. Alongside the formal reporting relationship, an informal reporting relationship also exists in companies that are used to control human interaction patterns within a company. It has been found that most of the companies of Australia use mainly different types of organizational structures. They are such as line organizational structure, staff or functional authority organizational structure, and divisional organizational structure. The other organizational structures used in Australian business are such as project organizational structure, matrix organizational structure and hybrid organizational structure. All the advantages and disadvantages of these organizational structures have been discussed in these assignments as well. After analyzing all types of or ganizational structures, some recommendations have been given for Australian companies so that they can improve their organizational structure. Components of organizational structure design It has been found that an effective organizational design requires five interdependent components. They are such as leadership, structure and decision making, people, work processes and systems and culture of the organization. Importance of every component in the organizational structure design has been mentioned below: Leadership Development of clear vision and priorities An organization needs to develop cohesive leadership team to maintain the behavior of employees and their performance (lugge et al. 2013). Decision making and structure The management of an organization needs to develop clear role and responsibilities for all the employees so that they can take right decisions. As Rasula et al. (2012) mentioned that, organizational structure has to be developed in such a way that supports business objectives of the business entity. People Management of an organization needs to select employees depending on their talent and qualification required for success All types of discrimination related with religion, culture, sex of employees have to be prohibited from employee selection procedure (Buckley 2014). All the incentive schemes and performance measures have to be aligned with the objectives of the organization. Work processes and systems The management of an organization needs to develop effective execution of the programmatic work processes. The management needs to develop efficient and effective systems and support process in order to improve business performance of the company. Culture Pinheiro and Stensaker (2014) stated that, in order to become successful in market, a company has be culturally diversified. A company needs to give high value to the high performance and ethical behaviour of employees. Management of an organization has to acknowledge and influence their employees to adopt change. Figure 1: Importance of the five components in organizational structure design (Source: Buckley 2014) The main principles of organizational design It has been found that, there are three major principles are related with organizational design. They are mentioned below: 1. Management needs to consider all the five components of the organizational design wheel. Stonier (2012) argued that, the common mistake that most of the organizations make is to concentrate on structure alone (reporting lines and boxes) as the solution. 2. Management of an organization needs to align the five components of the organizational structure with one another. As Kelly et al. (2014) mentioned that One element that doesnt fit can limit the performance of the whole system. 3. Management has to align organization and all the relevant strategies with one another. According to Plugge et al. (2013), strengths and weakness of an organization can influence wide range of feasible strategies for that organization. Organizations must adopt new strategic directions in order to overcome all the weaknesses. When an organizational structure becomes ineffective It has been found that there are some major symptoms that indicate the inefficiency of an organizational structure design. They are such as excessive amount of conflict, inappropriate coordination, misuse of resources, low level of staff morale, poor flow of work, reduced responsiveness. There is a table given below in order to describe the how these symptoms have affected leadership, structure and decision making, people, work processes and systems and culture of the organization. Figure 2: Ineffectiveness of structure design (Source: Stonier 2012) Five grouping model organizational design It has been found that there are mainly five types of grouping model used in organizational structure design. They are such as functional design, geographic design, Program (product) design, market/ customer and matrix. All these Structures are described below. However, Pryke and Smyth (2012) argued that, Most organizations end up with a hybrid structure, combining elements of different models but with one dominant approach. Functional design This type of organizational structure is organized around the major functions and departments of a company. As Pryke and Smyth (2012) mentioned that, this model is most suitable for small sized organization that has single programmatic focus. It is not suitable to manage a company across large geographic area. The major advantage of this model is that it can develop depth of skills for a particular function or department. As Stonier (2012) stated that, this model promotes lower costs, scale and functional innovation. The major disadvantage of this model is that organizational functions can break down if individuals do not have clear understanding about their role. Geographic design This type of organizational structure is most applicable for companies that organized around major geographies. This model is most appropriate for large companies with multiple programs. It is appropriate when an organization has local differences, which can become barrier to success. These differences are related with economics, fundraising and regulations. The advantage of this model is that it allows better customization of programs and services in accordance to the region (Pryke and Smyth 2012). However, implication of this model can lead a company to become heterogeneous. Program (product) design This model is organized mostly around major programs. As Plugge et al. (2013) stated that, this model is appropriate when programs are very different from one another such as economics and customer care. It promotes in-depth understanding within a specific program area. It enables clear focus with accountability for program results. In order to apply this model strong skills are required along with specific program head. However, this model can lead potential loss of control and functional duplication. It becomes difficult for organizations contact common customers across different programs. Market/ customer This type of organizational structure is appropriate for companies, which serve for customer or client beneficiaries. As Pinheiro and Stensaker (2014) stated that, this model is most suitable for companies, which have different types of customers and different service requirements. It helps to develop clear focus on important clients. However, it can lead to duplication of function and potential loss of controls. Matrix This structure helps to manage multiple dimensions of an organization simultaneously like geography and program (Plugge et al. 2013). However, disadvantage of this model is that it leads to unclear accountability and decision making. Due to complex structure, employees become confused about whom they report to. However, it has been found that most of the organization uses hybrid structure where any one model is dominant. The example of the hybrid model has been given below. Figure 3: Hybrid model of organizational structure (Source: Plugge et al. 2013) The importance of organizational structure It has been found that most of the organizational structures used by Australian companies have two major divisions. They are such as financial and structure. As Pryke and Smyth (2012) mentioned that functional area of an organizational structure includes engineering and marketing report. On the other hand companies use product structure when it sells various products and brands. According to Kelly et al. (2014), it is important for any company to develop organizational structure that suits its needs. Function As Stonier (2012) stated that, organizational structure is an important part decision making process. It has been found that most of the companies use flat organizational structure. For instance, in most of the small companies, manager reports directly to the president instead of directors. According to Pryke and Smyth (2012), flat structures help small companies to take quicker decisions. It has been analyzed that small companies should never worry about organizational structure unless they have 15 employees. It has been found that employees in small organizations have multiple responsibilities. Communication According to Kelly et al. (2014), organizational structure is important for communication. It helps to make effective distribution of authority. It enables every employee to understand whom they have to report for their work. It has been found that most of the companies sue to funnel their communication through department leaders. For instance, marketing employees discuss various issues with the director of the organization. On the other hand, the director of the organization discusses all important issues with the vice president or upper management. Evaluation of employee performance According to Stonier (2012), organizational structure is highly significant to evaluate employee performance. It has been found that the linear structure of product and organizational structures help supervisors to evaluate the performance of their subordinates in efficient manner (Buckley 2014). It also helps supervisors to evaluate the skill level of employees. It also helps to analyze the relationship between co-workers and the timeline in which they conduct their job. In addition, it also helps supervisors to conduct semiannual and annual appraisal of performance, which is an important part of company operation. Goal Achievement As Pinheiro and Stensaker (2014) mentioned that, organizational structure is significant to achieve results and goals. It allows develop an efficient chain of command. It has been found that department leaders are assigned as project in charge so that they can complete task within time. Organizational structure also helps to foster team spirit, where every member in a team can work towards a common goal (Buckley 2014). Solution/ prevention Organizational structure helps organizations to effectively manage change in market place. It includes factors such government regulations, new technology and consumer needs. The owners need to conduct meeting with all the members of organizational structure. They need to address all the issues they have to face while operating in the organization and have to come up with certain solutions as a group. According to Rasula et al. (2012), change is inevitable in any industry. Hence, it is the responsibility of owners to find out the most effective organizational structure to meet those changes. Different types of organizational structure Divisional Organizational Structure Divisional organizational structure categorizes the activities of an organization based on different departments. The businesses are classified around geographic, service and product group and market. It groups each organizational function into various divisions. According to Lee et al. (2013), most of the large-scale organizations in Australia follow divisional organizational structure for their business. On the other hand, Plugge et al. (2013) opined that divisional structure increases organizational flexibility by breaking down the business further into different product line, geographical structure and market structure. The organizations, which follow divisional organization structure in Australia, have separate management for each of the division (Lin 2014). Therefore, each department of the organizations is effectively and smoothly managed by having direct control. Apart from that, organizations having this kind of organizational structure, group employees based on their respon sibility in respective division (Bidwell 2012). Each division has control over day-to-day operation of the organization. However, those departments are answerable to the central authority of the organization to maintain overall strategy of the organization. It also increases the coordination of each department in the organization (Bidwell 2012). The example of divisional organizational structure can be found in Eagle Boys Australia. The commercial department of this organization focuses on commercial customers by having its own separate production, product, accounting and sales employees. The retail division takes care of retail customers in Australia through customized departmental control (Lee Kozlenkova and Palmatier 2015). Apart from that, International division takes care of the retail customers outside of Australia. The organization shares product development and production facilities with the retail division through having own sales and accounting employees (Plugge Bouwman and Molina-Castillo 2013). The divisional structure has many advantages and disadvantages. Benefits of the divisional organizational structure include some factors like accountability, culture, competition, local decisions, speed and multiple offerings. Regarding accountability, divisional structure is much easier in assigning actions and responsibilities to the different divisions. In a competitive market, this structure works best while managers can shift their decision at ease. Using this structure, organizational culture can be maintained in a particular strategic division. This organization helps in moving downward decision of the managers while improving the ability of the company to respond towards local market responses. Divisional structure supports multiple offerings of different product categories. Disadvantages include economies of scale, rivalries, cost, inefficiencies and strategic focus. A Huge amount of cost is incurred in maintenance of the divisional structure. The structure of the organizati on cannot take the advantage of economies of scale. The different functional departments of an organization sometimes operate inefficiently due to lack of centralization. Sometimes the strategic focus of each division deviates from the original strategic direction of the company. Another example of a company following divisional structure is IGA (Independent Grocers of Australia). The parent company of IGA is Metcash. IGA is the subsidiary of Metcash. The divisional structure of Metcash is divided into the retail division, international division, and commercial division. This structure helps the company in maintaining its operations smoothly in different geographic locations in Australia as well as outside Australia. The above-listed advantages are availed by IGA in its various retail division. Project Organizational Structure In project organizational structure, direction of workflow depends on distribution of abilities and talent of the organization. It also depends on the need to apply the talent on the organizational problems. According to Bidwell (2012), project work may flow horizontally, vertically, upward, downward or diagonally. Therefore, organization should follow project organizational structure based on the types of projects. Organizations, which follow project organizational structure, are adaptive and dynamic in nature and take this approach for its survival. On the other hand, Wu (2015) opined that project organizational structure is followed temporarily by the organization for achieving some specific objective within specified period. In this organizational structure, projects are executed through a team, which is formed of the specialists from different functional departments (Lee et al. 2015). The IT organizations of Australia mostly follow this structure for executing their dynamic proj ects. An effective team is formed in those organizations, which follow all its resources, energies and results on the assigned project (Bellini et al. 2016). When a piece of work has a particular deadline as well as specified goal then project organizational structure is best for this situation. The nature of work is very critical regarding profits or losses project structure is suitable in this scenario. Unfamiliar and unique works in an organization follow this structure. In this structure, communication is maintained between each department of the organization. The whole department is having a particular objective of accomplishing a specific task. Hence, project managers depend on their subordinates for the quick accomplishment of their missions (Bellini et al. 2016). Support is provided by quality control, production department and engineering to the project manager in reaching the goals. Free communication is maintained among the higher-level officials with the lower subordinates for delivering quality work on the project. As communication is open of this type of organizational structure, hence there is a less possibility of miscommu nication, conflicts, etc. The IT companies usually break various departments of the organization and delegate themselves in a stipulated task. The employers of different departments of IT companies work together on a project and follows project organizational structure for that period. IT companies of Australia follow project structure for a temporary basis. There are many advantages of using this structure in construction, software companies. The most important factor is the flexibility. Flexibility is well maintained in this structure of the organization. Companies like Torus Games, Sausage software, etc. are technology-based businesses that follow the project organizational structure (Bellini et al. 2016). Apart from that Australian construction companies also follows this structure for better productivity and quality output from the project managers. Another example of project organizational structure can be evidently found in Westnet Internet Service Provider in Australia. A clear line of authority can be found in this organization, where the team has to report the project team leader directly regarding the project progress (Bidwell 2012). Apart from that, organization also follows single reporting system and this shorter line of communication establishes strong communication in the organization. Single authority system followed by the organization leads to fast concern for the stakeholders (Plugge Bouwman and Molina-Castillo 2013). In this organizational structure, the team members of the organization become flexible and versatile due to different types of project executions. Functional organizational structure The type of organization structure where corporate functions are grouped into divisions. After that, the units correspond in terms of geographies and products. Each newly formed group contains all vital requirements and resources that might support the particular product line or the geography of the market. For instance, marketing division, IT, finance, etc. are the resources that must be present in the strategic segments. The multidivisional form is defined as a legal structure that consists of a parent company that owns subsidiary companies. Subsidiary companies have different functionalities that give birth to various functional departments. It is known as functional organization structure (Lin 2014). An organization follows a particular style of organization structure depending on the nature of the company and the manner of operating procedure of the enterprise. This structure is responsible for organizing different activities of the company regarding different functionalities of the enterprise. Different departments of the company are linked with each other. Australian companies follow functional structure follows a good communication flow. Functional departments of companies include enhanced efficiency of operations. It happens because employees of various departments share their level of skills and expertise with each other for performing their functions in a particular team. However, workers from different departments such as marketing, productions, finance share their skills. This is possible in a functional structure. Australian companies following this structure enjoy many advantages. A variety of enterprises of different sectors of industries can use this structure (Bellini et al. 2016). Large corporations of Australia usually manufacture comparable products that can be handled using functional organizational structure. The vision and mission of more major firms are aligned to the goals of individual technical departments of the companies. Apart from having advantages, there are few disadvantages of functional structure. The structure is not suitable for small and medium sized enterprises. This is because; the number of departments in a small company is less. Hence functional organization structure will not yield maximize productivity for the small firms (Lin 2014). For small companies, line structure is perfect as the chain of command is flowing in this structure without any problem. For instance, King Living is a furniture manufacturing and retail company in Australia that follows functional organization structure. Several functional departments are controlling the business operations of the company in different areas as well as they are aligned with one another. The central head of King Living is linked with various functionalities of the enterprise. It represents maintenance of effective communication within the organization. Matrix Organizational Structure Unlike project organizational structure, Matrix Organizational Structural is a permanent form of organizational structure. Organizations achieve specific results by employing specialists from different functional areas. In matrix organizational structure, managers are grouped as functional manager and product manager. According to Lee et al. (2013), functional managers remain in charge of specific resources like production, inventory, quality control marketing and scheduling. On the other hand, Lee et al. (2015) opined that product managers remain in charge of one or more products. These managers are authorized to make product and business strategies. While, framing product and business strategies, these managers call on the functional managers for allocation of necessary resources (Lin 2014). Functional managers and product managers have equal power in the organization Lee et al. (2015). However, functional managers are to depend on product managers in regards to product budget. Thi s organizational structure maintains horizontal flow of information and skills necessary for accomplishing the work (Bidwell 2012). The example of Matrix organizational structure can be effectively found in Telstra Australia. The employees of this organization have more than one formal boss. The employees are to report the day-to-day performance to the product development manager (Lee et al. 2015). In this communication, horizontal structure is followed. Apart from that, the product development managers are to report the overall performance to the functional head (Plugge et al. 2013). It is usually based on vertical structure. Matrix organizational structure allows the organizational supervisors to focus on their areas of expertise (Plugge et al. 2013). Effective collaboration among different functional departments, allows the organization to handle complex projects easily and effectively. Hybrid Organizational Structure Hybrid organizational structure builds shared organizational mission and allows the employees to work with different types of project based on their expertise (Lee et al. 2015). This structure creates unified team with common goal from different interest level. According to Wu (2015), in this organizational structure, management first divide the employees into different department based on their specialized areas and each of the department are responsible to accomplish their respective goals towards organizational success. On the other hand, Bellini, Pereira and Becker (2016) opined that most of the multinational organizations in Australia follow hybrid organizational structure for keeping effective control over the organizational process. Hybrid Organizational structure can best be seen in MYOB software accounting organization. This structure is followed in the organization for maintaining high level of international commitment and orientation Lee et al. (2013). The organization keeps centralized control over the business process through this organizational structure. Shared organizational talent and skills make most efficient use of organizational resources and gives best organizational outcome. Interdepartmental coordination and cooperation between the international divisions makes smooth global business for the organization (Lee et al. 2015). Line organizational structure Line organizational structure is a typical organizational structure that is supported by most of the companies in Australia. The structure is responsible for bringing the workers of a particular company together towards accomplishing mission and goals. The structure influences vertical relationships between various levels of Australian companies. Line organization structure is a permanent form of structure that does not change with the modification of project or time (Plugge et al. 2013). There are many advantages of the line structure. They are flexibility in using resources, decentralization in terms decision making, active coordination of project and products, faster response towards change, efficiency in using supporting systems, and advanced environment monitoring (Lin 2014). The line structure enhances the democratic and participative style of leadership. The input of the team members is very necessary for maximization of the productivity of the team. Teamwork is incorporated b y this structure. For instance, employees of marketing finance and operations department can communicate with each other without facing any problem. It is one of the biggest advantages of line organization structure. Various departments of companies work together and discuss with each other related to frequent issues. Specialized information exchange is practiced between the managers that enhance quick responses to the customers. Expertise and skills of each employee are forecasted in the structure that helps in increased employee relations. Employees get motivated resulting in improved individual performance (Plugge et al. 2013). It also enhances the performance of the team. The teams are usually small and hence group cohesiveness is maintained. Chain of command is kept in line structure. For instance, Australian Broadcasting Corporation is an organization following line structure. It is a media based company having a different department of production and marketing. The line structure of the business mainly divided into two groups of output and commercialization. Again, the marketing department is divided into different levels. On the other hand, production department is again split into few categories. The structure is a very simple promoting decision making process and simple in understanding the chain of commands between the different services of the company (Lin 2014). Apart from this company, small businesses follow line structure for maintaining clarity among various levels of the enterprise. Small, medium businesses of Australia are giving emphasis on this structure for the development of the efficiency of the rate of productivity. Committee organizational structure Committee organization structure is different from the line and functional structure. However, it is similar to staff organization. The decisions of the top level management of the company are implemented whereas the inputs of the staffs are not applied in this type of structure. This structure is characterized by a formal organizational structure where members of companies are given priorities (Pryke and Smyth 2012). As the meaning of the word committee suggests, the structure follows a line structure that is formed by a group of people. Australian companies usually follow this structure. This is not so popular like that of other organizational structures. This structure is a combination of all the forms of organizational structures. Australian companies following this structure can generate integrated ideas. This structure includes various people in different levels of management. One most valuable perspective of this form of organization structure is a participative style of leadership. Participative leadership involves the participation of various executives of different levels of management. It is also known as democratic leadership. Participative leadership is a famous form of direction and is known for giving increased performance of the company (Plugge et al. 2013). In Committee organizational structure, control and coordination are easy as open discussion is followed by the enterprise. For instance, ABC Learning is a website that follows committee organizational structure. Organizational structure of Australian Sports Commission Company overview Australian Sports Commission is focused on getting more Australian participant and excels in sports activity (Pryke and Smyth 2012). The key objective of the company is to achieve: Deliver key programs in line with the Australian Governments sport policy objectives Provide financial support and other assistance to national sporting organizations to deliver participation and high performance results and improve their capability, sustainability and effectiveness Build collaboration, alignment and effectiveness within the Australian sport sector. Structure of the organization During the year of 2011-2012 Australian Sports Commission (ASC) realigned it organizational structure. This structure helps to meet the role required by the sector of Australian sports and Australian Government. There are mainly three divisions exists in the organizational structure of ASC. They are described below in the chart: Figure 4: Organizational Structure of Australian Sports Commission (ASC) (Source: Ausport 2016) Australian Institute of sports This division has the major responsibility to lead the strategic direction of sports in Australia. The Australian Institute of sports has three key roles: Providing strategic leadership and direction of high performance sport (including capability building and the delivery of national programs) delivery of world-class athlete preparation (including coaching, sports science and sports medicine, program management, vocational/pastoral care and competition opportunities) Fostering a national approach to applied performance research. Partnership and sustainable sports Partnership and sustainable sports division mainly focuses on providing specialist sport support. It also helps to develop the capacity and capability National Sporting Organizations (NSOs). This division is mainly focused on gathering all arrangements of funding. It also helps to make compliance with different partners of sport sectors. It develops community sport programs and sporting school program to excel in sports activities. Corporate operations It is the role of corporate operations to develop business capability and services in order to give support all other divisions of the Australian Sports Commission (ASC). The key areas include focus on: Human resource capabilities Information technology capabilities Sound financial and asset management practices Managing the ASCs responsibilities within the compliance framework Providing high quality facilities and services. Recommendation It has been found that most of the small businesses of Australia start with few employees and very few amounts of managers. When a business starts to grow, owners often try to create organizational structure to adopt with business changes rather than creating attentive plan to enhance future growth for an organization. For any company irrespective of its size, future planning is the most effective way to create an appropriate organizational structure that can help a business to expand. Now some specific recommendations are provided for the Australian companies so that they can improve their organizations structure. Developing a dream structure The best way to develop the optimal organizational structure for a business is like a new coming company. It helps the owners to develop a management structure that is able to mitigate all the needs of their business model, rather than one that best suits the needs of the current staffing levels. It order to do that, owners should not regard any staff they currently have or honoring any commitments they have to make. They have to develop organizational structure depending on the realties that they have to face in Australian market. Organize according to function Organizational structures have to be developed in such a way that it can meet all the business functions. These business functions are such as sales, marketing, production, human resources, finance and information technology. Even if a company is using contractors to handle some of these functions, someone in that organization must be in charge of the contractors. This person has all the organizational responsibilities related with these functions. Combining functions It has been found that most of the small organizations give multiple responsibilities to various function heads or departments to save money (especially when a function requires part time attention). For instance, most of the small companies in Australia combine human resources with bookkeeping, sales and marketing, office administration and information technology. When the companies start to expand, they have to expand these functions due to the increase of the workforce. Development of chain of command An organizational structure should clearly designate the superior of each person working within the company. It will help to develop effective communication system within the organization. All the superiors have to report directly to the chief operating officer or owner. Communicating the structure with others Owners need to understand that organizational structure is not a top-secrete document. It has been found that organizational structure operates well when every employee in an organization (even the lowest employees on the chain of command) knows the organizational structure. Owners need to organize meeting to explain the reason of creating such organizational structure. In this meeting, owners need to explain how this structure can benefit the organization. Conclusion In this assignment, various theories related with organizational structure have been discussed. These theirs are like classical organizational theories; Neoclassical Organization Theory, Contingency Theory and Systems Theory. After analyzing all these theories, it has been found that Classical organizational theory is not appropriate in the modern business condition as it addresses motivation only as an economic reward. Hence a new theory named as Neoclassical Organization Theory has been developed. In the Contingency Theory, it has been discussed that conflict cannot be avoided but it can be managed. The importance of organizational structure in the changing market environment of Australia has been discussed. It has been analyzed that small companies should never worry about organizational structure unless they have 15 employees. It has been found that employees in small organizations have multiple responsibilities. In addition, organizational structure helps to make effective distr ibution of authority. Organizational structure also helps to foster team spirit, where every member in a team can work towards a common goal. It also helps organizations to effectively manage change in market place. In the next section different types of organizational structures used in Australia has been discussed along with examples. They are such as line organizational structure, staff or functional authority organizational structure, line and staff organizational structure and divisional organizational structure. The four other organizational structures used in Australian business are such as project organizational structure, matrix organizational structure and hybrid organizational structure. In addition, the advantages and disadvantages of all these organizational structures have been discussed here. In the next section, the organizational structure for Australian Sports Commission has been discussed. At first a general overview of the company has been provided. Then the organizational chart used by the company Australian Sports Commission has been analyzed. After that some recommendations have been provided so that Australian companies can improve their organizational structure. It has been found that most of the small businesses of Australia start with few employees and very few amounts of managers. When a business starts to grow, owners often try to create organizational structure to adopt with business changes rather than creating attentive plan to enhance future growth for an organization. These companies can adopt these recommendations in order to improve their business structure. References Ausport. 2016.Ausport.gov.au. Retrieved 23 August 2016, from https://www.ausport.gov.au/ Bellini, C.G.P., Pereira, R.D.C.D.F. and Becker, J.L., 2016. 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